1 As Club series

Volaterrae — modern Volterra — was among the wealthiest Etruscan cities when it struck this series, its prosperity rooted in copper and alabaster extraction from the surrounding hills. The club symbol distinguishing this issue from other Etruscan aes grave production almost certainly functioned as a mint or magistrate mark rather than carrying symbolic weight, a bookkeeping convention that now allows attribution where the coins themselves bear no inscription.

At roughly 140 grams, these pieces were cast rather than struck — the only technology suited to producing coinage of this mass. By the time Volaterrae issued this series, Rome's own aes grave was already being phased toward lighter struck coinage, a transition Etruscan mints were slower to follow.